什么是区块链？
从科技层面来看，区块链涉及数学、密码学、互联网和计算机编程等很多科学技术问题。从应用视角来看，简单来说，区块链是一个分布式的共享账本和数据库，具有去中心化、不可篡改、全程留痕、可以追溯、集体维护、公开透明等特点。这些特点保证了区块链的“诚实”与“透明”，为区块链创造信任奠定基础。而区块链丰富的应用场景，基本上都基于区块链能够解决信息不对称问题，实现多个主体之间的协作信任与一致行动?[7]。
At the technical level, block chains involve many scientific and technical problems, such as mathematics, cryptology, the Internet, and computer programming. From an application point of view, block chains are a distributed and shared book and database, characterized by decentralised, non-manufactured, whole-course marks, traceability, collective maintenance, and transparency. These features guarantee the “honest” and “transparent” character of block chains and create the basis for trust in the block chain.
区块链是分布式数据存储、点对点传输、共识机制、加密算法等计算机技术的新型应用模式。区块链（Blockchain），是比特币的一个重要概念，它本质上是一个去中心化的数据库，同时作为比特币的底层技术，是一串使用密码学方法相关联产生的数据块，每一个数据块中包含了一批次比特币网络交易的信息，用于验证其信息的有效性（防伪）和生成下一个区块?[8]。
Block chains are new applications of computer technology such as distributed data storage, point-to-point transmission, consensus mechanisms, encryption algorithms. Block chains are an important concept of Bitcoin, which is essentially a decentralised database and, as a bottom-of-bitcoin technique, a series of data blocks linked by cryptographic methods, each containing a batch of subbitcoin network transactions to verify the validity of its information (probability-proof) and generate the next block
比特币白皮书英文原版?[4]其实并未出现 blockchain 一词，而是使用的 chain of blocks。最早的比特币白皮书中文翻译版?[9]中，将 chain of blocks 翻译成了区块链。这是“区块链”这一中文词最早的出现时间。
The original English version of the Bitcoin White Paper does not actually have the word blackchain, but rather uses the word "blocks". The earliest Chinese version of the Bitcoin White Paper translates the name of blocks into the block chain. This is the earliest time the word "block chain" appears in Chinese.
国家互联网信息办公室2019年1月10日发布《区块链信息服务管理规定》，自2019年2月15日起施行?[1]。
On 10 January 2019, the National Internet Information Office issued the Regulation of Block Chain Information Services, which became effective on 15 February 2019 with the introduction of .
作为核心技术自主创新的重要突破口，区块链的安全风险问题被视为当前制约行业健康发展的一大短板，频频发生的安全事件为业界敲响警钟。拥抱区块链，需要加快探索建立适应区块链技术机制的安全保障体系。
As an important entry point for core technological autonomy innovation, the issue of safety risks in block chains is seen as a major constraint on industry’s health development, with frequent safety incidents sounding alarm bells for industry. Embracing block chains requires accelerating the exploration of safety and security systems for technology mechanisms that adapt to block chains.
公有区块链
public block chains
公有区块链（Public Block Chains)是指：世界上任何个体或者团体都可以发送交易，且交易能够获得该区块链的有效确认，任何人都可以参与其共识过程。公有区块链是最早的区块链，也是应用最广泛的区块链，各大bitcoins系列的虚拟数字货币均基于公有区块链，世界上有且仅有一条该币种对应的区块链?[16]。
Public Block Chains means that any individual or group in the world can send a transaction and the transaction can be validated effectively in the block chain, and anyone can participate in the consensus process. The public block chain is the earliest and the most widely applied block chain. Virtual digital currencies in each of the major bitcoins series are based on a public block chain with a worldwide chain of blocks with and only one corresponding to that currency
联合（行业）区块链
United (industry) block chain
行业区块链（Consortium Block Chains)：由某个群体内部指定多个预选的节点为记账人，每个块的生成由所有的预选节点共同决定（预选节点参与共识过程），其他接入节点可以参与交易，但不过问记账过程(本质上还是托管记账，只是变成分布式记账，预选节点的多少，如何决定每个块的记账者成为该区块链的主要风险点），其他任何人可以通过该区块链开放的API进行限定查询?[16]。
Industry block chains (Consortium Block Chains): multiple pre-selected nodes are designated as bookkeepers within a group, each block is generated by all pre-selected nodes (pre-selection nodes are involved in the consensus process) and other access nodes can be involved in the transaction, although the process of bookkeeping (in essence or as trustees, only becomes distributed accounts, the number of pre-selected nodes, and how to determine how the bookkeeper of each block becomes the main risk point in the block chain) and any other person can make a qualified query through the API, which is open in the block chain
私有区块链
Private Block Chain
私有区块链（Private Block Chains)：仅仅使用区块链的总账技术进行记账，可以是一个公司，也可以是个人，独享该区块链的写入权限，本链与其他的分布式存储方案没有太大区别。传统金融都是想实验尝试私有区块链，而公链的应用例如bitcoin已经工业化，私链的应用产品还在摸索当中?[16]。
Private block chains (Private Block Chains): Recording is done solely by using the master account technology of the block chain, either as a company or as an individual, with the exclusive rights to write the block chain, which does not differ much from other distributed storage schemes. Traditional finance is about experimenting with private block chains, while public chain applications, such as bitcoin, are industrialized, and private chain applications are still in touch
去中心化。区块链技术不依赖额外的第三方管理机构或硬件设施，没有中心管制，除了自成一体的区块链本身，通过分布式核算和存储，各个节点实现了信息自我验证、传递和管理。去中心化是区块链最突出最本质的特征?[17]。
Decentralizing. Block chain technology is not dependent on additional third-party management or hardware facilities, there is no central control, and apart from the self-contained block chain itself, information is self-validated, transmitted and managed through distributed accounting and storage. Decentralized is the most prominent feature of the block chain: .
开放性。区块链技术基础是开源的，除了交易各方的私有信息被加密外，区块链的数据对所有人开放，任何人都可以通过公开的接口查询区块链数据和开发相关应用，因此整个系统信息高度透明?[17]。
Open. The technical basis of the block chain is open-source. Except for private information of the parties to the transaction, the data in the block chain are open to all, and anyone can search for block chain data and develop applications through open interfaces, so the system is highly transparent .
独立性。基于协商一致的规范和协议(类似比特币采用的哈希算法等各种数学算法)，整个区块链系统不依赖其他第三方，所有节点能够在系统内自动安全地验证、交换数据，不需要任何人为的干预?[17]。
Independence. Based on consensus norms and agreements (a variety of mathematical algorithms, such as the Hashi algorithm used in Bitcoin), the whole block chain system is not dependent on other third parties, and all nodes are able to verify and exchange data automatically and safely within the system without intervention by anyone .
安全性。只要不能掌控全部数据节点的51%，就无法肆意操控修改网络数据，这使区块链本身变得相对安全，避免了主观人为的数据变更?[17]。
Security. As long as 51% of all data nodes are not controlled, network data cannot be manipulated arbitrarily, making the block chain itself relatively secure and avoiding subjective data changes
匿名性。除非有法律规范要求，单从技术上来讲，各区块节点的身份信息不需要公开或验证，信息传递可以匿名进行。
Anonymity. Except as required by law, the identity information of each block node is not technically required to be published or authenticated, and the transmission of the information can be anonymous.
分布式账本指的是交易记账由分布在不同地方的多个节点共同完成，而且每一个节点记录的是完整的账目，因此它们都可以参与监督交易合法性，同时也可以共同为其作证?[19]。
Distributed books mean that transactions are accounted for jointly by multiple nodes distributed in different locations and that each node records complete accounts, so that they can be involved in monitoring the legitimacy of the transaction and can testify jointly for them
跟传统的分布式存储有所不同，区块链的分布式存储的独特性主要体现在两个方面：一是区块链每个节点都按照块链式结构存储完整的数据，传统分布式存储一般是将数据按照一定的规则分成多份进行存储。二是区块链每个节点存储都是独立的、地位等同的，依靠共识机制保证存储的一致性，而传统分布式存储一般是通过中心节点往其他备份节点同步数据。没有任何一个节点可以单独记录账本数据，从而避免了单一记账人被控制或者被贿赂而记假账的可能性。也由记账节点足够多，理论上讲除非所有的节点被破坏，否则账目就不会丢失，从而保证了账目数据的安全性?[19]。
In contrast to traditional distributed storage, the uniqueness of the distributed storage of block chains can be found in two main ways: one is that each node of the block chain stores complete data according to a block chain structure, and the traditional node stores generally divide the data into multiples according to a certain rule. The second is that each node of the block chain stores is separate, status equivalent, relying on a consensus mechanism to ensure consistency in storage, while the traditional node stores usually synchronize data with other backup nodes through a central node. No node can record the book data separately, thus avoiding the possibility of a single accountr being controlled or bribed. The number of nodes is also sufficient, and the accounts are theoretically not lost unless all nodes are destroyed, thus ensuring the security of the account data
存储在区块链上的交易信息是公开的，但是账户身份信息是高度加密的，只有在数据拥有者授权的情况下才能访问到，从而保证了数据的安全和个人的隐私?[20]。
The transaction information stored on the block chain is publicly available, but the account identification information is highly encrypted and can only be accessed with the authorization of the data owner, thereby ensuring data security and personal privacy .
共识机制就是所有记账节点之间怎么达成共识，去认定一个记录的有效性，这既是认定的手段，也是防止篡改的手段。区块链提出了四种不同的共识机制，适用于不同的应用场景，在效率和安全性之间取得平衡?[20]。
Consensus mechanisms are how to reach a consensus among all bookkeeping nodes to determine the validity of a record, both as a perceived tool and as a means of preventing tampering. Block chains offer four different consensus mechanisms that apply to different application scenarios to achieve a balance between efficiency and security ? [20] .
区块链的共识机制具备“少数服从多数”以及“人人平等”的特点，其中“少数服从多数”并不完全指节点个数，也可以是计算能力、股权数或者其他的计算机可以比较的特征量。“人人平等”是当节点满足条件时，所有节点都有权优先提出共识结果、直接被其他节点认同后并最后有可能成为最终共识结果。以比特币为例，采用的是工作量证明，只有在控制了全网超过51%的记账节点的情况下，才有可能伪造出一条不存在的记录。当加入区块链的节点足够多的时候，这基本上不可能，从而杜绝了造假的可能?[20]。
“Equality for all” is the right of all nodes to give priority to consensus results, to be identified directly by other nodes and, ultimately, to be the final consensus result. In Bitcoin, for example, the workload proves that it is possible to falsify a non-existent record only if more than 51% of account nodes are controlled. When the nodes of blocks are sufficiently numerous, this is virtually impossible, thus eliminating the possibility of falsifying
智能合约是基于这些可信的不可篡改的数据，可以自动化的执行一些预先定义好的规则和条款。以保险为例，如果说每个人的信息（包括医疗信息和风险发生的信息）都是真实可信的，那就很容易的在一些标准化的保险产品中，去进行自动化的理赔。在保险公司的日常业务中，虽然交易不像银行和证券行业那样频繁，但是对可信数据的依赖是有增无减。因此，笔者认为利用区块链技术，从数据管理的角度切入，能够有效地帮助保险公司提高风险管理能力。具体来讲主要分投保人风险管理和保险公司的风险监督?[20]。
Smart contracts are based on these credible and indefensible data, allowing for the automated implementation of predefined rules and provisions. For example, insurance, if everyone’s information (including medical information and information on the occurrence of risks) is authentic, it is easy to make automated claims in a number of standardized insurance products. In insurance companies’ day-to-day operations, while transactions are not as frequent as banks and securities, reliance on credible data is increasing.
区块链在国际汇兑、信用证、股权登记和证券交易所等金融领域有着潜在的巨大应用价值。将区块链技术应用在金融行业中，能够省去第三方中介环节，实现点对点的直接对接，从而在大大降低成本的同时，快速完成交易支付?[21]。
Block chains have potentially significant application value in financial areas such as international exchange, letters of credit, equity registers, and stock exchanges. Applying block chain technologies in the financial sector can save third-party intermediaries and direct point-to-point interfaces, thereby rapidly completing transaction payments while significantly reducing costs.
比如Visa推出基于区块链技术的 Visa B2B Connect，它能为机构提供一种费用更低、更快速和安全的跨境支付方式来处理全球范围的企业对企业的交易。要知道传统的跨境支付需要等3-5天，并为此支付1-3%的交易费用。Visa 还联合 Coinbase 推出了首张比特币借记卡，花旗银行则在区块链上测试运行加密货币“花旗币”?[21]。
Visa B2B Connect, for example, introduces block-chain-based technology that provides institutions with a cheaper, faster and safer way of paying cross-border payments to deal with business-to-business transactions worldwide. Know that traditional cross-border payments take three to five days and pay 1 to 3% of transaction costs to do so. Visa also coinsed Coinbase with the introduction of the first bitcoin debit card, and Citibank tested the running of the encrypted currency “flag currency” on the block chain
区块链在物联网和物流领域也可以天然结合。通过区块链可以降低物流成本，追溯物品的生产和运送过程，并且提高供应链管理的效率。该领域被认为是区块链一个很有前景的应用方向?[22]。
Block chains can also be naturally combined in the area of physical networking and logistics. They can reduce logistics costs, trace the production and delivery of goods, and improve the efficiency of supply chain management. This area is considered to be a promising application for block chains .
区块链通过结点连接的散状网络分层结构，能够在整个网络中实现信息的全面传递，并能够检验信息的准确程度。这种特性一 定程度上提高了物联网交易的便利性和智能化。区块链+大数据的解决方案就利用了大数据的自动筛选过滤模式，在区块链中建立信用资源，可双重提高交易的安全性，并提高物联网交易便利程度。为智能物流模式应用节约时间成本。区块链结点具有十分自由的进出能力，可独立的参与或离开区块链体系，不对整个区块链体系有任何干扰。区块链 +大数据解决方案就利用了大数据的整合能力，促使物联网基础用户拓展更具有方向性，便于在智能物流的分散用户之间实现用户拓展?[22]。
Block chains, through the fragmented network stratification of nodes connected, allow for the full transmission of information throughout the network, and can test the accuracy of the information. This feature increases the ease and intelligence of physical network transactions to a certain extent. The block chain+ big data solution uses automatic filtering models for large data, creating credit resources in the block chain that can double the security of transactions and increase the ease of transactional access. Time-cost savings are applied to intelligent logistics models. The block chain nodes have very free access, independent participation or exit from the block chain system, without any interference with the entire block chain system. The block + big data solution uses the integration capability of large data to facilitate the expansion of basic network users in a more direction, facilitating the expansion of users 区块链在公共管理、能源、交通等领域都与民众的生产生活息息相关，但是这些领域的中心化特质也带来了一些问题，可以用区块链来改造。区块链提供的去中心化的完全分布式DNS服务通过网络中各个节点之间的点对点数据传输服务就能实现域名的查询和解析，可用于确保某个重要的基础设施的操作系统和固件没有被篡改，可以监控软件的状态和完整性，发现不良的篡改，并确保使用了物联网技术的系统所传输的数据没用经过篡改?[23]。 Block chains are linked to the productive life of the population in areas such as public administration, energy, transport, etc., but the centralization of these areas also poses problems and can be modified by the chain of blocks. Decentralized and fully distributed DNS services provided through point-to-point data transfer services between nodes in the network can provide a search and reconciliation of domain names that can be used to ensure that the operating systems and solids of an important infrastructure are not tampered with, to monitor the status and integrity of the software, to detect undesirable manipulations, and to ensure that the data transmitted by a system using material networking technology are not tampered with 通过区块链技术，可以对作品进行鉴权，证明文字、视频、音频等作品的存在，保证权属的真实、唯一性。作品在区块链上被确权后，后续交易都会进行实时记录，实现数字版权全生命周期管理，也可作为司法取证中的技术性保障。例如，美国纽约一家创业公司Mine Labs开发了一个基于区块链的元数据协议，这个名为Mediachain的系统利用IPFS文件系统，实现数字作品版权保护，主要是面向数字图片的版权保护应用?[24]。 By means of block chain technology, work can be identified, the presence of text, video, audio, etc., and the real and uniqueness of tenure can be guaranteed. After the creation of power on the block chain, subsequent transactions will be recorded in real time and the full life cycle of digital copyright management can also be used as a technical guarantee in judicial evidence. For example, Mine Labs, an American start-up company in New York, has developed a meta-data protocol based on the block chain, a system called Medicatain, which uses the IPFS file system for copyright protection of digital works, mainly copyright protection applications for digital images 在保险理赔方面，保险机构负责资金归集、投资、理赔，往往管理和运营成本较高。通过智能合约的应用，既无需投保人申请，也无需保险公司批准，只要触发理赔条件，实现保单自动理赔。一个典型的应用案例就是LenderBot, 是 2016 年由区块链企业 Stratumn、德勤与支付服务商 Lemonway 合作推出，它允许人们通过 Facebook Messenger 的聊天功能，注册定制化的微保险产品， 为个人之间交换的高价值物品进行投保，而区块链在贷款合同中代替了第三方角色?[25]。 In the case of insurance claims, the insurance agency is responsible for the collection, investment, settlement, and often higher management and operating costs. The application of smart contracts does not require the application of an applicant or the approval of an insurance company, as long as the terms of settlement are triggered, to achieve automatic settlement of the policy. A typical application is LenderBot, launched in 2016 in partnership with Stratumn, Deloitte and Lemonway, which allows people to register customized microinsurance products through Facebook Messenger's chat function to insure high-value items exchanged between individuals, while block chains replace third-party roles in loan contracts 区块链上存储的数据，高可靠且不可篡改，天然适合用在社会公益场景。公益流程中的相关信息，如捐赠项目、募集明细、资金流向、受助人反馈等，均可以存放于区块链上，并且有条件地进行透明公开公示，方便社会监督?[26]。 The data stored on the block chain are highly reliable and indefensible and naturally suitable for use in social public goods. Information on public goods processes, such as donation projects, collection details, financial flows, feedback from recipients, etc., can be stored on the block chain, with conditions for transparent and open publicity to facilitate social oversight . 从实践进展来看，区块链技术在商业银行的应用大部分仍在构想和测试之中，距离在生活、生产中的运用还有很长的路，而要获得监管部门和市场的认可也面临不少困难，主要有: In practical terms, the use of block chain technology in commercial banks is largely still being conceived and tested and there is still a long way to go to life and production, and there are difficulties in obtaining recognition in regulatory sectors and markets, notably: (一)受到现行观念、制度、法律制约。区块链去中心化、自我管理、集体维护的特性颠覆了人们生产生活方式，淡化了国家、监管概念，冲击了现行法律安排。对于这些，整个世界完全缺少理论准备和制度探讨。即使是区块链应用最成熟的比特币，不同国家持有态度也不相同，不可避免阻碍了区块链技术的应用与发展。解决这类问题，显然还有很长的路要走?[27]。 (i) Existing concepts, systems, and laws. Fragmentation, self-management, collective maintenance of the block chain destabilizes people’s productive lifestyles, dilutes State, regulatory concepts, and undermines existing legal arrangements. There is a complete lack of theoretical preparation and institutional discussion throughout the world. Even with the most sophisticated bitcoins in the block chain, different countries have different attitudes that inevitably impede the application and development of block chain technology. There is obviously a long way to go to solve these problems. (二)在技术层面，区块链尚需突破性进展。区块链应用尚在实验室初创开发阶段，没有直观可用的成熟产品。比之于互联网技术，人们可以用浏览器、APP等具体应用程序，实现信息的浏览、传递、交换和应用，但区块链明显缺乏这类突破性的应用程序，面临高技术门槛障碍。再比如，区块容量问题，由于区块链需要承载复制之前产生的全部信息，下一个区块信息量要大于之前区块信息量，这样传递下去，区块写入信息会无限增大，带来的信息存储、验证、容量问题有待解决?[27]。 (ii) At the technical level, the block chain has yet to make breakthrough progress. The block chain application is still at the laboratory start-up stage, with no intuitive and mature products available. Compared to Internet technology, specific applications such as browsers and APPs can be used to browse, transmit, exchange and apply information, but the block chain clearly lacks such breakthrough applications and faces high technical threshold barriers. For example, the block capacity problem, because the block chain requires the full amount of information generated before it is copied, the amount of information in the next block is greater than the amount of information in the previous block, so that the information in the block can be transmitted indefinitely, and the resulting information storage, validation, capacity problems will have to be resolved at (三)竞争性技术挑战。虽然有很多人看好区块链技术，但也要看到推动人类发展的技术有很多种，哪种技术更方便更高效，人们就会应用该技术。比如，如果在通信领域应用区块链技术，通过发信息的方式是每次发给全网的所有人，但是只有那个有私钥的人才能解密打开信件，这样信息传递的安全性会大大增加。同样，量子技术也可以做到，量子通信——利用量子纠缠效应进行信息传递——同样具有高效安全的特点，近年来更是取得了不小的进展，这对于区块链技术来说，就具有很强的竞争优势?[27]。 (iii) Competitive technological challenges. While many view block chain technologies, there are many kinds of technologies that promote human development, and which are easier and more efficient, people will apply them. For example, if block chain technologies are applied in the area of communications, they are sent to the owners of the whole network at each time, but only the person with the private key can decipher and open the message, so that the security of the message can be greatly enhanced. Similarly, quantum technology can be done, too, with the same efficiency and security features, and much more progress has been made in recent years, with respect to block chain technology having a strong competitive advantage .
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